The Great Uprising of 1857

• In 1856, the British army introduced the new Pattern 1853 Enfield Rifle.
• The paper cartridge containing gunpowder and bullet had to be bitten off with teeth before loading into the rifle muzzle.
• A report spread rapidly across military cantonments that the protective grease on the cartridge was manufactured from an animal tallow mixture of cow fat and pig fat.
• To orthodox Hindus, the cow is sacred and holy; to Muslims, the pig is strictly forbidden (haram).
• Both Hindu and Muslim sepoys were convinced that the British government was orchestrating a deliberate religious conspiracy to defile their faith and force mass Christian conversions.
• When ordered to use the cartridges, sepoys mutinied, sparking the nationwide revolt.

• (a) Jhansi: Rani Lakshmibai (the fearless warrior queen who fought against Sir Hugh Rose).
• (b) Kanpur: Nana Saheb (adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II), assisted by military commander Tatya Tope and diplomat Azimullah Khan.
• (c) Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal (wife of exiled Nawab Wajid Ali Shah) and her young son Birjis Qadr.
• (d) Bihar (Jagdishpur): Kunwar Singh (an 80-year-old heroic Rajput zamindar of Arrah) and his brother Amar Singh.

1. Abolition of Company Rule: The commercial and political rule of the British East India Company was completely abolished, and sovereignty over India was transferred directly to the British Crown (Queen Victoria).
   2. Secretary of State for India: The Board of Control and Court of Directors were dissolved, replaced by a British Cabinet minister called the Secretary of State for India, assisted by an advisory Council of 15 members.
   3. Creation of the Viceroy: The Governor-General was redesignated as the Viceroy and Governor-General of India (serving as the direct representative of the Crown). Lord Canning became the first Viceroy.
   4. End of Doctrine of Lapse: Queen Victoria's Proclamation of 1858 promised to respect the rights of native princes and permanently abandoned the aggressive Doctrine of Lapse, permitting adoption of heirs.

• General Service Enlistment Act (1856): A military act passed by Governor-General Lord Canning decreeing that all future recruits in the Bengal Army must sign a mandatory undertaking to serve overseas whenever and wherever required by the British government.
• Why Resented?
According to orthodox high-caste Hindu religious traditions of the time, traveling across the ocean or "black water" (Kala Pani) resulted in the permanent loss of caste, ritual defilement, and social ostracism.
The high-caste Brahmin and Rajput sepoys viewed this law as another direct colonial assault on their religious faith.

1. Lack of All-India Participation: The revolt remained largely confined to Northern and Central India (UP, Bihar, MP, Delhi). Southern India, Punjab, Bengal, Gujarat, and Rajasthan remained largely peaceful and aloof.
   2. Support of Indian Princes to the British: Major native rulers acted as "breakwaters to the storm" for the British: the Scindia of Gwalior, Holkar of Indore, Nizam of Hyderabad, and Sikh and Gurkha chieftains actively aided the British army.
   3. Absence of a Unified Central Leadership & Ideology: Rebels lacked a coordinated military command. Bahadur Shah Zafar was old and indecisive, and individual leaders fought primarily for their own local grievances rather than a unified modern national program.
   4. Superior British Military Technology: British troops possessed superior modern Enfield rifles, coordinated field artillery, naval reinforcements, and the electric telegraph that transmitted instant intelligence about rebel troop movements.

• Mangal Pandey (1827–1857): A 29-year-old sepoy belonging to the 34th Bengal Native Infantry stationed at Barrackpore near Calcutta.
• Action on March 29, 1857:
Infuriated by the introduction of the greased cartridges containing cow and pig fat, Pandey openly rebelled on the parade ground.
He exhorted his fellow sepoys to rise up against the British and shot at his British officers (Adjutant Baugh and Sergeant-Major Hewson).
He was eventually arrested, court-martialed, and hanged on April 8, 1857, becoming the revered first martyr of the Indian freedom struggle.

• When Lord Dalhousie refused to recognize her adopted son Damodar Rao and annexed Jhansi under the Doctrine of Lapse in 1853, Rani Lakshmibai declared: "Main meri Jhansi nahi doongi!" (I will not give up my Jhansi!).
• When the revolt broke out in 1857, she assumed leadership, valiantly defending Jhansi Fort against the British army led by Sir Hugh Rose.
• When the fort was breached, she escaped heroically on horseback with her child tied to her back, joined forces with Tatya Tope, and captured the strategic Gwalior Fort.
• On June 18, 1858, dressed in male soldier attire, she fought fearlessly on the battlefield near Gwalior until she was mortally wounded.
• British commander Sir Hugh Rose paid her the ultimate military tribute: "Here lay the woman who was the only man among the rebels."

1. Increased European Ratio: The ratio of European to Indian soldiers was dramatically increased from $1 : 5$ to $1 : 2$ in the Bengal Army and $1 : 3$ in the Madras and Bombay Armies.
   2. European Monopoly on Artillery: Strict policy was adopted that all heavy artillery, advanced weaponry, and ammunition arsenals were placed exclusively under the command of British officers.
   3. Policy of "Divide and Rule": Regiments were reorganized on the basis of caste, religion, and regional lines (Sikh, Gurkha, Jat, Rajput, Baluch regiments) to prevent camaraderie and collective solidarity among Indian soldiers.
   4. Martial vs Non-Martial Races: The British ceased recruiting from Awadh and Bihar (who had rebelled) and heavily recruited from "martial races" (Gurkhas, Sikhs, Pathans) who had remained loyal.