Around 3,000 years ago, rajas established supremacy through the Ashvamedha (Horse Sacrifice): a horse was let loose to wander guarded by warriors; if another raja stopped it, they fought; if allowed to pass, the host raja was acknowledged as supreme.
- Janapadas: The land where a jana (tribe) set its foot and settled down (e.g. Hastinapur, Purana Qila).
- Mahajanapadas (c. 2500 years ago): 16 powerful kingdoms with fortified capital cities surrounded by immense walls of wood, brick, or stone to protect against invasions and demonstrate wealth.
- Taxation: Maintaining standing armies and building forts required regular revenue: Bhaga (Share) was fixed at 1/6th of agricultural crop produce; taxes were also levied on crafts persons, herders, and traders.