ईंटें, मनके तथा अस्थियां (हड़प्पा सभ्यता) (Bricks, Beads and Bones)

The Mature Harappan Phase (c. 2600–1900 BCE) was characterized by a rich, diverse agricultural and pastoral subsistence base:

A. Agricultural & Dietary Evidence:

• Archaeo-botanical Finds: Charred grains recovered from hearths reveal cultivation of wheat, barley, lentils, chickpea, and sesame. Millets were found in Gujarat sites, while rice grains were relatively rare.
• Archaeo-zoological Finds: Animal bones analyzed by zoo-archaeologists confirm domestication of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig. Bones of wild animals (wild boar, deer, gharial) and marine fish indicate diverse protein sources.

B. Agricultural Technology:

• Ploughed Fields: Terracotta models of the plough have been discovered at Cholistan and Banawali (Haryana). A real prehistoric ploughed field with two sets of furrows intersecting at right angles (indicating two different crops grown together) was excavated at Kalibangan (Rajasthan).
• Canal & Water Irrigation: Most Harappan sites were located in semi-arid zones. Traces of stone-built canals were excavated at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan. At Dholavira (Gujarat), sophisticated stone-cut water reservoirs harvested seasonal rainwater for agriculture.

Mohenjo-daro ("Mound of the Dead" in Sindh) is the most famous Harappan city, divided into two distinct sectors built upon artificial mud-brick platforms:

A. The Citadel (Western Higher Sector):

• Smaller in area, but elevated high on massive mud-brick platforms and fortified with defensive walls to protect against river floods and external attacks.
• The Great Bath: A large rectangular public bathing tank in an open courtyard, lined with bricks laid edge-to-edge, sealed with a layer of natural bitumen/gypsum mortar to prevent water leakage. Flanked by eight private dressing rooms with drains, archaeologists interpret it as a venue for ritual purification ceremonies.
• The Warehouse (Granary): A massive brick structure with wooden superstructures (which rotted away) used for state storage of agricultural grains.

B. The Lower Town & The Grid Drainage Network:

• Grid-Iron Town Planning: Streets and alleys were laid out on an exact grid, intersecting at crisp right angles ($90^\circ$). Houses were constructed along these street lines.
• Underground Drainage System: The crowning achievement of Harappan civil engineering. Every private house had at least one wall bordering a street drain. Household wastewater flowed through terracotta pipes into street drains covered with loose, removable brick slabs for routine maintenance and cleaning. Sump pits collected heavy sediment while clean water drained away into main brick channels!
• Domestic Architecture: Residential houses centered around an open interior courtyard surrounded by rooms, ensuring privacy (zero street-level windows). Almost every house possessed a private paved bathroom and its own private well (Mohenjo-daro had over 700 wells!).

A. Craft Production at Chanhudaro:

Chanhudaro was a tiny settlement (less than 7 hectares) almost exclusively devoted to specialized craft manufacture:

• Bead-Making Technology: Craftsmen used precious stones (carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite) and metals (copper, bronze, gold). Beautiful red carnelian was obtained by heating yellowish nodules at various production stages. Specialized cylindrical drills discovered at Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira reveal high precision.
• Shell-Working Centers: Coastal settlements at Nageshwar and Balakot specialized in manufacturing shell bangles, ladles, and inlays.

B. Long-Distance Trade Networks:

Harappans procured raw materials through an extensive trading network:

• Domestic Sourcing: Copper was obtained from the Khetri region of Rajasthan (the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture); gold from the Kolar fields of Karnataka; steatite from southern Rajasthan.
• International Maritime Trade:
  • Oman (Magan): Chemical analysis proves Harappan copper artifacts contain traces of nickel identical to Omani copper ores. A characteristic black-slipped Harappan clay jar was found in Oman.
  • Mesopotamia (Meluhha): Mesopotamian cuneiform texts refer to trade with Dilmun (Bahrain), Magan (Oman), and Meluhha (the Harappan region). Texts praise Meluhha as the "land of seafarers", exporting carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and timber. Mesopotamian cylinder seals depict the humped zebu bull of the Indus.

A. Script & Weights:

• The Harappan Script: Remains undeciphered to this day. It was pictographic and non-alphabetic, featuring between 375 and 400 signs. It was written from right to left (as evidenced by wider spacing on the right edge of seals where the scribe started, and cramping on the left). Found on steatite seals, copper tablets, and a massive 10-letter signboard at Dholavira.
• Standardized Weights: Made of a stone called chert, strictly cubical with no markings. Lower denominations followed a binary system (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32... up to 12,800), while higher weights followed a decimal system.

B. Archaeological Interpretation of Religion:

• Mother Goddess: Heavily jeweled terracotta figurines of females with elaborate headdresses, interpreted as fertility goddesses.
• "Proto-Shiva" Seal: A steatite seal depicting a three-faced figure seated in a yogic posture, surrounded by an elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, and buffalo, with two deer below the stool. Identified by Sir John Marshall as an early representation of Lord Shiva (Pashupati, Lord of Beasts).
• Nature Worship: Conical stone objects interpreted as lingas; trees (peepal leaf) and mythical animals (the unicorn) depicted on seals.

C. The Decline of Harappan Civilization (c. 1900 BCE):

By 1900 BCE, major urban centers (Mohenjo-daro, Harappa) were largely abandoned. Distinctive artifacts—seals, weights, uniform bricks, long-distance trade—disappeared in the "Late Harappan" phase. Multiple overlapping causes are debated by historians:

• 1. Climatic shift toward severe aridity and prolonged mega-droughts.
• 2. Deforestation due to excessive consumption of wood fuel for baking millions of bricks.
• 3. Shifting or drying up of the Saraswati/Ghaggar river systems.
• 4. Massive tectonic earthquakes causing catastrophic Indus flooding.
• 5. Collapse of the central administrative authority (disappearance of standardized civic control).